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Short description

Auxiliaries from Dacia, armed with swords and javelins and carrying large oval shields.

Description

The Emperor Augustus' reforms of the Roman army resulted in the creation of the Auxilia cohorts that were recruited from the free non-citizens (or "peregrini") of the Empire. These were needed to add extra manpower to the Imperial army but at a far lower cost than a legion of citizen-legionaries. The auxilia were recruited from every corner of the empire, and their unit names usually reflect the tribe or area from which they came. The auxiliary cohorts were either "quingenaria" ("five-hundred-strong") or "milliaria" ("one-thousand-strong"), which were 480 men, and 800 men strong respectively. Though some units were recruited especially as light troops, skirmishers, or archers, most units of auxilia were heavy infantry that fought in much the same way as their legionary counterparts.

The first time that the Romans took any real notice of the Dacians was during the early 1st century BC, when the Dacians, under their King Burebista, sided with the Greek cities south of the Danube during the Second Mithridatic War (74-72 BC), when the Greek cities were being occupied from Roman forces commanded by Varro Lucullus, the proconsul of Macedonia. The Dacians are described by the Romans as a warlike people, fighting fiercely in battle, and preferring death to surrender. The Dacians were particularly famous for their use of the falx - a wickedly sharp curved blade, wielded with two hands, with the cutting edge on the inside of the curve. It could be used to hack at an enemy, or, when used in a downwards pulling motion, it was easily capable of severing an enemy's limbs or head. This weapon was so effective that it forced the Romans to modify their equipment - the Italica pattern-helmets issued to Roman troops in the early 2nd century AD came with crossbars reinforcing the top of the helmet, and segmented arm guards (known as "manicae") were issued to the troops to protect their forearms from these wicked Dacian weapons. Following Burebista's victory over a Roman army near Histria, many of the Greek cities south of the Danube, including Apollonia, accepted Burebista's invitation to become part of his kingdom. After fourteen years of relative peace, during which Burebista profited immensely from his new-found Greek allies, Burebista launched several campaigns against the Celts to the west of Dacia, and by 48 BC, the Dacians had defeated the three most powerful tribal coalitions in the area, namely the Scordisci, Taurisci, and the Boii, destroying the latter tribe's main oppidum (i.e. their capital), which is now modern Bratislava.

All this activity to the north of the Romans' province of Macedonia did not go unnoticed, but the Romans had problems of their own - the Republic was wracked by civil war. When Pompey retreated from Italy to his powerbase in Greece in 49 BC following Caesar's invasion of Italy, Burebista declared that he would support Pompey. In the following year, Caesar defeated Pompey at Pharsalus in Greece. Pompey fled to Egypt and was murdered. Caesar planned to send legions into Dacia to punish Burebista for his support of the Optimates, but he was assassinated in 44 BC, before the invasion could be carried out. Ironically, Burebista was assassinated in the same year. Following the death of Burebista, relations between the Roman leadership and the Dacians were rather amicable - Octavian sought not only the help of the Dacians in his fight against Mark Antony, but he offered his daughter (Julia)'s hand to king Cotiso in marriage as an exchange for the hand of King Cotiso's daughter. This period of relative peace allowed the influx of Roman merchants into Dacia, along with Roman technology and knowledge of fortifications, resulting in the somewhat hybridised nature of Dacian fortifications encountered by Trajan's forces when the Romans invaded under him. This period of relative peace lasted for around 130 years, in some way helped by the division of Dacia into four separate states following Decebalus' death, which reduced the perceived threat to Roman security represented by Dacia. However, in 85 AD, the Dacians began to raid the Roman province of Moesia, immediately opposite Dacia across the Danube. These were, according to some sources, originally Dacian lands that the Romans had conquered as early as 74 BC. The following year, the Dacian King, Duras, ordered a far more serious assault on Moesia, in which the Governor of Moesia, Oppius Sabinus, was killed.

During these raids, the Emperor Domitian was far from idle. After finishing the campaign in Germania begun by his father, Vespasian, and his brother, Titus, to secure the Upper Rhine and Danube by securing the Agri Decumates, he turned his attention to Moesia. After reorganising it into two separate provinces (Moesia Superior in the west, and Moesia Inferior in the east) and shoring up Roman defences along the Danube, he began to plan an invasion of Dacia.

In 87 AD, the Romans launched their attack. An army of five or six legions crossed the Danube under General Cornelius Fuscus, and marched towards the Dacian capital, Sarmizegethusa. The Roman army was ambushed by the Dacians, under their new King, Diurpaneus, at Tapae, and suffered heavy losses. Fuscus was killed, and one legion, Legio V Alaudae, was completely wiped out. The Romans retreated across the Danube, having abandoned all their artillery, standards (including the Aquila of the Praetorian Guard), and other burdens. In recognition of this victory, Diurpaneus took the title "Decebalus", meaning "The Brave One". This was a humiliating reverse for Domitian, and so, in 88 AD, another Roman army, under Tettius Iullianus marched down the same route, but in better order. The Dacians, realising that they could not ambush the Romans a second time, gave battle at Tapae. This, second battle at Tapae, ended in a victory for the Romans, but before the Romans could mass troops for an advance on Sarmizegethusa, a revolt flared up in Germania. The governor of Germania Superior, Lucius Antoninus Saturninus, had revolted against the Domitian, with the aid of the Chatti tribe. Despite the fact that forces from Germania Inferior, Raetia, and Spain (with the latter army headed by the future Emperor Trajan) responded immediately, it still took them some time to crush the revolt. Domitian, not wishing to fight a war on two fronts, concluded the war with Decebalus with a treaty that was widely regarded as a shameful admission of defeat by the Senate: in exchange for vague Roman authority over Dacia, Decebalus would receive military instructors, craftsmen, weapons (such as artillery) and a subsidy (though some saw it as more of a tribute) of 8 million sesterces a year. Decebalus used this money wisely - he began to fortify his kingdom even more extensively and expanded it to encompass the territory of the Bastarnae and buy the allegiance of the Roxolani, a Sarmatian tribe that inhabited the area to the east of the Dacian Kingdom. These Sarmatians fought as cataphracts, heavy shock cavalry with both horse and rider covered in armour made from scales of horse hoof, horn, or metal, carrying the long, two-handed kontos lance. These troops were a welcome addition to the Dacian army, whose own cavalry were rather limited in numbers.

Domitian was assassinated in 96 AD, and Nerva was placed on the throne. During his brief reign, Nerva recognised the anger felt among the members of the Senate at the fact that Rome had made peace with the Dacians, and that Rome had not crushed the Dacians - in fact, Dacia was stronger than ever (this truce is regarded as one of the main reasons for Domitian's assassination). He also realised that something would have to be done to satisfy Roman honour with regards to the Dacians. However, as Nerva was an old man (he was 65 when he was placed on the throne), he realised that he would not be able to go on campaign himself. As well as providing 60 million sesterces worth of relief to the poor and ensuring the expansion of Roman aqueducts and the road system of the Empire, Nerva adopted the popular senator and general Marcus Ulpius Traianus as his heir. When Nerva died in January 98AD, the new Emperor (better known as Trajan) was greeted with massive public support. Though he occasionally indulged in pederasty and was known to drink heavily, he was an exceedingly popular choice with soldiers and civilians, as the vast majority of people appreciated that although he was the most powerful man in the Empire, he never carried such vices to excess. Along with his reputation for fairness, it was Trajan's reputation of military excellence that endeared him to the Romans - he had proven to be an able commander during Domitian's campaigns in Germania, and consequently the legions regarded him as a man fit to lead them. Soon after being named Emperor, Trajan began planning an invasion of Dacia that would deal with Decebalus once and for all. The Senate enthusiastically approved the new emperor's plans for war, and the Empire began to build up forces on the Danube - Trajan raised two legions specifically for the campaign - Legio II Traiana Fortis, and Legio XXX Ulpia Victrix. In 101AD, Trajan led his legions, accompanied by thousands of auxiliaries, across the Danube, citing the Dacians' lack of respect for Roman imperial power as the reason for the invasion. The Dacians, once again, decided to meet the Romans at Tapae. However, this time, despite there being upwards of ten Roman legions present (perhaps as many as thirteen legions were deployed in the field), the Dacians inflicted heavy casualties on the Romans before they were forced to withdraw. As a result of these losses, and the fact that winter was drawing near, Trajan decided to delay his assault on Sarmizegethusa until the spring of 102 AD. However, Decebalus used this lull in Roman activity to his advantage, and during the winter, launched an assault on Moesia. The Dacian forces, supported by the Roxolani and Bastarnae, had already lost many troops whilst attempting to cross the frozen Danube - in several places, the ice was too thin for the army to cross, and hundreds were drowned as they fell into the icy water of the Danube. Though the force did manage to cross the Danube largely intact, it was repulsed with huge losses at the battle of Adamclisi by Trajan's army and the troops that remained in Moesia, along with reinforcements from Thrace and Pannonia. Once spring arrived, Trajan resumed his advance on Sarmizegethusa, and Decebalus finally decided to call for an end to the fighting. At the end of the First Dacian War, Decebalus was forced to hand over all Roman deserters and prisoners, as well as any weapons, artillery or standards that they had captured or received as per Domitian's treaties. However, Trajan did not destroy Dacia, but merely sought to reduce it to the status of client kingdom, to act as a buffer between the Roman Empire and the nomadic tribes of the Steppes to the north-east. He did, however, garrison the northern bank of the Danube, and, after the war ended in 102AD, ordered his personal architect to construct a large stone bridge over the Danube. This bridge, which was over 1,135 metres in length (and as such, was, for over a thousand years, the longest arch bridge yet built), 19 metres high (measured from the surface of the river), and fifteen metres wide, would be known as Trajan's bridge - twelve of the twenty stone and brick pillars upon which the bridge was built survive to the current day, and as such represent Roman architecture at its zenith. This bridge allowed the Romans to rapidly re-supply and reinforce their troops on the northern side of the Danube, without stopping boats passing up and down the river. The mere size of the bridge would have been an awe-inspiring sight for any Dacian, and a reminder of the technological and logistical power of the Roman Empire.

The bridge was finished by 105AD, but despite this impressive symbol of Roman power, Decebalus soon began to encourage the Dacians to revolt against the Romans, and raid Roman colonies and towns in Moesia. He also began to re-arm his strongholds and began accepting Roman deserters into his kingdom once more.

Trajan's army from the First Dacian War was still deployed on both sides of the Danube, and so he was able to concentrate it quickly. He also summoned reinforcements in the form of detachments, or "vexillations" from several legions stationed throughout the Empire, and thousands of additional auxiliaries, bringing the combined strength of his army to some 200,000 men - such an army had not been assembled by Rome since the days of the Illyrian revolt. This was a testament not only to Trajan's organisational skills, but also the importance which he attached to destroying the Dacians once and for all. He built another, smaller, bridge across the Danube, and this, along with the Danube flotilla, allowed him to rapidly enter Dacia with his vast army. Resistance was fierce and desperate, but swiftly overcome by the vastly superior Roman forces. Soon, only the Dacian capital of Sarmizegethusa remained. The Romans besieged the city, and although their initial direct assault failed, to breach the walls, the Romans built a wall of circumvallation around the city and bombarded it with their artillery. The Romans then destroyed the water pipes of Sarmizegethusa, and with their water supplies gone, the defenders were forced into submission. The Romans entered the city and burned it to the ground. Though Decebalus and many of his retainers and followers escaped the siege, they were pursued and caught by Roman cavalry. Realising that if he surrendered, he would be taken to Rome in chains, paraded through the streets and then garrotted as part of Trajan's triumph, the Dacian king committed suicide. Though several of the King's closest kinsmen did the same, one, named Bicilis begged for his life, and offered to reveal to the Romans the location of Decebalus' buried treasure, which had been hidden in the bed of the River Sergetia. The Romans, under Bicilis' instructions, found the buried treasure, and were amazed at the sheer amount of wealth that belonged to the Dacian king: 165,000 kilograms of pure gold, and 331,000 kilograms of silver. This, along with Dacia's vast mineral wealth and good agricultural land, meant that the campaign had more than paid for itself, despite the huge numbers of troops involved. With this wealth, was able to finance a massive building project in Rome, constructing the Forum that bears his name, which was a gargantuan public building of marble and gold. Today, only the central column remains, and on that column the story of the Emperor's campaigns in Dacia is told, spiralling upwards around the column. Trajan's Column provides almost all the narrative evidence of his campaigns in Dacia, which has largely been confirmed by archaeological evidence. Trajan also constructed a new capital for the province of Dacia, around 25 miles from the original capital, and named it Colonia Ulpia Traiana Dacica Augusta Sarmizegetuza. Although Dacia was only to be part of the Roman Empire for just under 160 years (the province was abandoned to the Goths by the Emperor Aurelian in 275 AD), it was highly urbanised. There were eight colonies ("coloniae") in Dacia, as well as several other large Roman settlements. Almost all of these sprang up around legionary and auxiliary fortresses and forts. The province also had an excellent road network, allowing the mineral and agricultural wealth of the new province to be exploited with maximum efficiency, and also providing the garrison of the province with a means of quickly moving to repel raids by tribes outside Roman Dacia, such as the Carpi, the Free Dacians, and the Bastarnae.

Despite the fact that Hadrian abandoned some territory to the east and west of Dacia to the Roxolani and Iazyges respectively, the province's infrastructure was largely unchanged. Dacia, despite its initially reduced population, soon proved to be a useful recruiting ground for the Roman army. The Dacians were a tough people and made excellent infantrymen. Several cohorts had been recruited into the Roman army by the time of Hadrian - Cohors I Aelia Dacorum Milliaria (founded by Hadrian, stationed in Britannia), Cohors II Augusta Dacorum Equitata Milliaria (stationed in Pannonia), Cohors I Ulpia Dacorum (founded by Trajan, stationed in Syria), and Cohors III Dacorum (also serving in Syria). There is also some evidence of Dacian cohorts serving in at least one internal province, but the epigraphic evidence is scarce.

These Dacian auxiliaries are good infantrymen, combining Roman discipline with the ruggedness of their ancestors. Despite the province's recent addition to the Empire, the Dacian cohorts are just as capable and loyal as any other auxiliary units in the empire. Although they have exchanged the traditional falx for the standard issue Roman gladius, these troops are still very effective against enemy infantry, because of their discipline, their courage, and their equipment, which consist of a solid bronze helmet, good quality scale armour, large oval "clipeus" shield, a cluster of javelins and the 20-inch-long gladius. Their fighting style is consistent with most other Roman infantry - enemies are pelted with javelins, before the Romans charge into combat, and using their large shields to batter their enemies and their swords in quick stabbing motions into the opposing infantrymen's faces or guts, they relentlessly carve a path through the enemy ranks, whilst holding their own formation to present a wall of shields against the enemy. In attack or defence, they are good, solid, dependable troops, and as such will prove very useful to any Roman commander.